The study of haptics saw a significant boost in research during the 1980s when the concept of robotics was being developed. As the research in robotics advanced, it was felt that there was a need for manipulation of objects by touch.  Further research bifurcated in two directions: one in development of ‘robotic hands’ and the other in the direction of developing and creating devices that enabled the users to be able to get the feeling of touch while manipulating objects. Development in these areas led to the birth of another sub-specialization of computer science called ‘computer haptics’ (Salisbury, et al., 2004).

Srinivasan and Basdogan (1997) describe computer haptics as a science that enables the display of simulated objects to humans in an interactive manner. Computer haptics uses a display technology through which objects can be touched and palpated. One of the major advantages in a user-haptic interaction is that the flow of information and energy is a two way process between the user and the device. Incorporating the haptic component into virtual environments (VE) facilitates the tactile sensation and imparts a more realistic, life-like experience to the user. The ‘haptic’ component not only imparts a sense of touch in VE, but it also enhances the user experience by offering a more realistic, life-like interaction with the system. Technological advancements in haptic devices have enabled the end user to feel a range of surface textures from fine to coarse in VE  (Srinivasan & Basdogan, 1997).

Salisbury (1999) and Srinivasan and Basdogan (1997) stated that in the early 1990s, there was noteworthy progress in the potential to simulate haptic interactions with 3D virtual objects in real-time.  The explosion of computers, digital and multimedia technology has given birth to several new areas like the virtual worlds of Second Life, or the open source format Croquet, whose growth has spurred the desire for researchers to apply haptic technology to these environments.  Due to haptic devices becoming more cost effective, several exciting possibilities have opened up for the inclusion of haptics in VE.  Technological advancements in haptics have unfolded its applications in a myriad of disciplines ranging from medicine to the military to video games (Stone, 1992; Srinivasan & Basdogan, 1997).
Pertinent to our study, medical literature reveals that haptic devices have been widely applied in surgery for developing surgical simulators to train surgeons in performing surgeries in virtual environments (Stone, 1992; Colwell, et al, 1998; Dawson, et al., 2000; Satava, 2001; Laycock & Day, 2003).  Further examples of utilization of haptics in the medical field include:

  • Chial, et al. (2002) created haptic virtual environments where force feedback was used to design scissors that could simulate the cutting of rat tissues. Initial results of this experiment had been encouraging and the users found cutting of natural and virtual tissues similar.  Also, Greenish, et al. (2002) demonstrated that subjects could identify tissues with similar precision when performing a real or simulated cutting task on various parts of the animals. Further work needs to be done in this area but the initial results have been encouraging.
  • Lieu, et al. (2003) discuss how haptic surgical simulators can be used successfully in medical courses, and the advantages of these systems in medical education. Among the many advantages they have enumerated are that these systems are very flexible to use and provide a uniform learning experience. They also state that despite initial costs, in the long run these systems can be very cost effective for educational institutions.

Most recently, the discipline of education has begun to use haptics as well; however, the applications are currently confined to the arena of higher education. For example, haptics have been widely used in undergraduate engineering curriculum and in undergraduate medicine.

Nevertheless, despite the use of haptics and their potential advantage in the aforementioned fields, not much work (if any) has been done in the area of biology at the k-12 level.  However, as virtual dissection becomes more prevalent amongst k-12 biology programs, haptics may be seen as an advantage within these classrooms.

Potential Uses of Haptic Devices in K12 Education

Computer simulation has added a whole new dimension to science education. Today we are observing an increased departure from the traditional method of teaching to an adoption of computer assisted teaching methods. More specifically, recent research also shows that computer simulation is changing the traditional science classroom atmosphere (Akpan, 2002).   Akpan and Andre (1999) note that, “simulation is the use of the computer to imitate dynamic systems of objects in a real or imagined world.  Akpan (2002) posits that the key to a student’s success in science is to develop an intuitive understanding of the physical systems involved. In the traditional approach, the students frequently learn concepts in a linear fashion and often do not understand the mechanisms involved in the process or where theory merges with the practical application.  Furthermore with regards to an application such as animal dissection, Akpan and Andre (1999) have observed that students showed an improved performance in learning frog anatomy when trained on a simulated version of frog dissection. Williams, et al. (2003) further emphasizes that computer based learning should aim at providing a better understanding of learning concepts and stimulate interest in the students. The incorporation of haptic devices in computer simulation environments could provide an excellent method for stimulating both engagement and comprehension in k-12 students that are not audio-visual learners (Grow, et al, 2006).  Okamura, et al. (2002) have reported that research in psychology demonstrates that learning styles vary from student to student, and that students have diverse learning needs depending on their cognitive styles and abilities.  Okamura, et al. also discuss that an interactive audio-visual environment, i.e. the traditional method of schooling, can prove to be inefficient and sometimes ineffective for those who learn best by using touch. By addressing this sense of touch, haptic interfaces provide a potential tool for helping students with cognitive development.

Augmenting Computer Simulated Dissections via Haptics

Kinzie, et al. (1993) compared organic dissection with an interactive computer based simulation program. The study revealed that the students preferred virtual dissections to the real dissections and they reported it to be a better learning experience. Additionally, in a pioneering study Robertson, et al. (1995) designed a web based dissection kit and a tutorial that enabled the students to conduct a virtual dissection on the web. A common gateway interface was used to develop this program.  Cross and Cross (2001) conducted a study on four biology classes in which comparisons of real versus virtual frog dissections were made.  Their results reflected that the students using a computer program did not score as well in the practical examinations as the students who had practiced on the organic frogs. The authors, however, concluded that it might be the result of the computer technology not being completely evolved enough to adequately replace the organic frog dissections. They also predicted that with technological advancement, better virtual dissections would be created that would enhance the students experiences. In 2003, Maloney conducted a study similar to Cross and Cross’s 2001 study in which the viability of a virtual fetal pig dissection versus an actual dissection for female students enrolled in high school biology classes was tested.  It was found that student scores on the virtual dissection group were significantly higher than the organic dissection group. The author also suggested that a virtual laboratory experience was a suitable replacement to an actual dissection.  It may be reasonable to conclude, given the rate of technological advancement in both software and hardware, that the technology of virtual dissection had evolved in the two years between the Cross-and Cross and Maloney studies to demonstrate a change in the findings.   It is important to note that all the systems described above lacked the incorporation of haptic force feedback.

Technology has advanced sufficiently so that currently it is now not only technologically feasible, but also economically feasible to enhance virtual dissection with a haptics mechanism, which could prove valuable in many ways. Studies in the medical literature suggest that haptically enabled force feedback provides the students with a life like experience while dissecting in VE (Fager & Von Wowern, 2004; Hart & Karthigasu, 2007).  The literature also suggests that students have a better experience with dissection in a virtual environment (Maloney, 2003).  Virtual dissection enables students to work with a clearly labeled model and provides flexibility to undo instances where they have gone astray. Also after dissection, many animal bodies are too mutilated and are difficult to learn from. Furthermore, real dissection has sparked much debate about cruelty to animals, plus it is expensive. A virtual dissection enhanced with a haptic device is much more cost effective. The conclusion that can be drawn from the literature ultimately suggests that haptics may be an advantage over both traditional and non-haptic based virtual dissection methods for biology students in the k-12 environment.